Condom use and risk factors of inconsistent or low use of the condoms during heterosexual anal intercourse in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review

Anal intercourse (AI) has been reported to be the riskiest among other sexual intercourses in spreading human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the risk could be minimized by the use of condoms. Whilst AI is believed to be practiced mainly by men who have sex with men, AI has also been reported to occur in heterosexual relationships. However, data on condom use during heterosexual AI are inadequate in sub-Saharan Africa. Method: A scoping review of English language published articles on condom use during heterosexual anal sex, whose studies were conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa from January 2010 to May 2020 was conducted. Articles were searched systematically on PubMed and Google Scholar electronic databases. Heterosexual AI was defined as penile penetrative anal sex between a man and a woman regardless of the sexual orientation of the 2 parties involved in the act of heterosexual AI. Findings: A total of 21 studies were eligible for analysis. Most of the studies (17 out of 21) reported females to be involved in heterosexual AI whilst 9 out of 21 studies reported males to be involved in heterosexual AI. The lifetime prevalence estimates of condom use during heterosexual AI ranged from 29%-97.5%. Other prevalence estimates of condom use during heterosexual anal intercourse were reported over various recall periods which were: 12 months' recall period with prevalence estimates ranging from 2.9%-59%; prevalence estimates for the past 3 months which ranged from 50%-94.4%; 1 month's recall period with prevalence estimates ranging from 5%-96% and prevalence estimates for the last intercourse experienced ranging from 1%-55%. Condom use during heterosexual AI was generally low and/or inconsistent among female sex workers (FSWs), men who have sex with men and women (MSMW) and some women in the general population. There were no risk factors identified in the study for the inconsistent or low use of condoms during heterosexual AI. Conclusion: Evidence from this study suggests condom use during heterosexual AI could be fairly low especially among groups such as FSWs, MSMW and some women in the general population. Risk factors for using condoms inconsistently or using condoms less during heterosexual AI are not clear. Heterosexual anal intercourse and condom use during the AI practice is generally an under-studied subject in Sub-Saharan Africa. Future studies need to explore on heterosexual AI and condom use practices during AI comprehensively so that there can be concrete evidence on the subject which will inform targeted interventions aimed at reducing HIV among heterosexual populations in SSA

Metabolic syndrome and its components among HIV/AIDS patients on Antiretroviral Therapy and ART-Naïve Patients at the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar, Nigeria

Background: Although an increasing access to ART in sub-Saharan Africa has made it possible for HIV/AIDS patients to live longer, clinicians managing such patients are faced with the challenge of drug-related metabolic complications. Methods: A cross -sectional study was carried out at the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Nigeria, on three groups of participants; namely HIV patients on ART, ART-naïve patients and HIV negative subjects (n =75). Demographic and anthropometric data were collected using a well-structured questionnaire while biochemical parameters were measured using colorimetric methods. Results: The highest prevalence of MS was associated with the HIV/AIDS patients on ART (i.e. 32.0 %, and 50.3% for NCEP-ATP III and IDF criteria respectively). Patients on ART had significant increases (p< 0.05) in waist to hip ratio, FPG, serum TG and LDL-c; and a significantly higher (p< 0.05) prevalence of hypertension, diabetes, low HDL-c and hypertriglyceridemia compared to the ART-naïve patients. Low serum HDL-c was the most prevalent form of dyslipidemia in all three groups and the most prevalent component of MS in HIV patients. Conclusion: ART increases the risk of MS and CVD. HIV/AIDS patients on ART should be advised on lifestyle modifications and undertake regular assessment of their cardiovascular risk factors

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Neisseria gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis isolated from individuals attending STD clinics in Kampala, Uganda

Background: Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) management in sub-Saharan Africa is syndromic but molecular diagnostics provide quicker, sensitive diagnosis and treatment. Effective STD control hinges on identification and treatment of infected persons and sexual partner contact tracing. Objectives: This study assessed feasibility of using the Xpert CT/NG test to identify prevalent Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhea (NG) infections among STD clinic attendees and their sexual partners and tested for antimicrobial resistance for N. gonorrhea. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at 4 outpatient STD clinics in Kampala, Uganda from February 2019 to October 2019. Participants received a syndromic diagnosis, were tested for NG and CT, as well as their sexual partners. Urine (men) and high vaginal swabs (women) were collected, examined using Xpert CT/NG assay. A total of 79 participants were enrolled at baseline of whom 25 had CT/NG. 21 partners of infected baseline participants and 7 partners of the 21 primary partners were enrolled. Results: The mean age of the reported sexual partners was 26 (18-43) years. The prevalence of NG was 25% at baseline and 18 % for CT. Nine (11.4%) people were dually infected. Men were more likely to have NG (p<0.001) at multivariable level. Two participants tested HIV-1 positive. On microbiological culture, 8 samples (2.5%) grew NG, and all were resistant to penicillin, ciprofloxacin. For CT, we found a preponderance of the F-serovar in this population. Conclusion: The most prevalent organism was Neisseria gonorrhea. Generally, the prevalence of CT and NG was high. Infection proportions increased among primary partners, particularly women. Etiologic testing without partner tracing and treatment may underestimate burden of CT/NG in this population and contribute to re-infection

Indirect serum biomarkers perform sub optimally in screening for significant liver fibrosis among HIV-infected and uninfected adults in Uganda

ntroduction: Indirect serum biomarkers present an acceptable noninvasive and cheap alternative for screening of significant liver fibrosis (SLF). Evaluation of their use in resource limited settings is important to determine their utility. Methods: We conducted a cross sectional study among 520 HIV infected and HIV uninfected adults attending care clinics in Kampala Uganda. Presence of SLF was determined using Fibroscan® liver stiffness measurement of ≥7.2KPa. The diagnostic value of indirect serum biomarkers for diagnosis of SLF was evaluated using the area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUROC) using Fibroscan® as gold standard. Results: Overall AUROC values for Age Platelet Index (API), Aspartate to Alanine Ratio (AAR), AST-to-Platelet Ratio Index (APRI), Fibrosis Index based on 4 Factors (FIB-4) and Gamma glutamyl transferase to Platelet Ratio Index (GPR) were 0.52, 0.49, 0.55, 0.55 and 0.54 respectively. Among HIV-infected participants AUROC values were slightly improved at predicting presence of SLF but still under 70%. Conclusion: Despite APRI and FIB-4 being more likely to identify participants with SLF, the overall diagnostic value of all serum biomarkers was poor with and without stratification by HIV status. We recommend the use of Fibroscan® technology as more accurate non-invasive diagnostic method for screening of SLF

Knowledge, risk-perception, and uptake of COVID-19 prevention measures in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has almost affected the entire globe and is currently in a resurgent phase within the sub-Saharan African region. Objective: This paper presents results from a scoping review of literature on knowledge, risk-perception, conspiracy theories and uptake of COVID-19 prevention measures in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: We used the following search terms: 'COVID-19', 'knowledge', 'perceptions', 'perspectives', 'misconceptions', 'conspiracy theories', 'practices' and 'sub-Saharan Africa'. Basing on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, we identified 466 articles for review; 36 articles met the inclusion criteria. We extracted data on knowledge, risk perception, conspiracy theories and uptake of COVID-19 primary prevention measures. Results: Knowledge of COVID-19 was high (91.3-100%) and associated with age and education; risk-perception was equally high (73.3-86.9%) but varied across studies. Uptake of handwashing with water and soap or hand-sanitizing ranged between 63-96.4%, but wearing of face masks and social distancing fared poorly (face masks: 2.7%-37%; social distancing: 19-43%). Conclusion: While knowledge of COVID-19 is nearly universal, uptake of COVID-19 prevention measures remains sub-optimal to defeat the pandemic. These findings suggest a need for continued health promotion to increase uptake of the recommended COVID-19 prevention measures in sub-Saharan Africa

Mapping urban physical distancing constraints, sub-Saharan Africa: a case study from Kenya

With the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, public health measures such as physical distancing were recommended to reduce transmission of the virus causing the disease. However, the same approach in all areas, regardless of context, may lead to measures being of limited effectiveness and having unforeseen negative consequences, such as loss of livelihoods and food insecurity. A prerequisite to planning and implementing effective, context-appropriate measures to slow community transmission is an understanding of any constraints, such as the locations where physical distancing would not be possible. Focusing on sub-Saharan Africa, we outline and discuss challenges that are faced by residents of urban informal settlements in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We describe how new geospatial data sets can be integrated to provide more detailed information about local constraints on physical distancing and can inform planning of alternative ways to reduce transmission of COVID-19 between people. We include a case study for Nairobi County, Kenya, with mapped outputs which illustrate the intra-urban variation in the feasibility of physical distancing and the expected difficulty for residents of many informal settlement areas. Our examples demonstrate the potential of new geospatial data sets to provide insights and support to policy-making for public health measures, including COVID-19

Catastrophic health expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa: systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective To estimate the incidence of, and trends in, catastrophic health expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods :We systematically reviewed the scientific and grey literature to identify population-based studies on catastrophic health expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa published between 2000 and 2021. We performed a meta-analysis using two definitions of catastrophic health expenditure: 10% of total household expenditure and 40% of household non-food expenditure. The results of individual studies were pooled by pairwise meta-analysis using the random-effects model. Findings : We identified 111 publications covering a total of 1 040 620 households across 31 sub-Saharan African countries. Overall, the pooled annual incidence of catastrophic health expenditure was 16.5% (95% confidence interval, CI: 12.9­20.4; 50 datapoints; 462 151 households; I2 = 99.9%) for a threshold of 10% of total household expenditure and 8.7% (95% CI: 7.2­10.3; 84 datapoints; 795 355 households; I2 = 99.8%) for a threshold of 40% of household non-food expenditure. Countries in central and southern sub-Saharan Africa had the highest and lowest incidence, respectively. A trend analysis found that, after initially declining in the 2000s, the incidence of catastrophic health expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa increased between 2010 and 2020. The incidence among people affected by specific diseases, such as noncommunicable diseases, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis, was generally higher. Conclusion :Although data on catastrophic health expenditure for some countries were sparse, the data available suggest that a non-negligible share of households in sub-Saharan Africa experienced catastrophic expenditure when accessing health-care services. Stronger financial protection measures are needed.

Profil clinique et biologique du Lupus érythémateux systémique dans un hôpital de District au Cameroun / Clinical and biological profile of systemic lupus erythematosus in a district hospital in Cameroon

Contexte et objectif. En Afrique, la prévalence du lupus érythémateux systémique (LES) est certainement sousestimée et les études sont restreintes. L'objectif était de décrire le profil clinique et biologique des patients lupiques. Méthodes. Étude documentaire sur LES suivi à l'hôpital de district d'Efolian (au Cameroun), entre janvier 2017 et novembre 2019. Le diagnostic de LES était basé sur les critères SLICC, le score SLEDAI était utilisé pour évaluer l'activité de la maladie. Résultats. Dix-neuf patients ont été colligés dont 17 femmes. L'âge moyen des patients était de 35±15 ans. Le délai diagnostique moyen était de 6,5 ± 1,5 ans. On notait une prédominance des atteintes articulaires et cutanéo-muqueuses. Il y avait une protéinurie chez 16 patients. Le score d'activité de la maladie mesurée par le SLEDAI était très élevé chez 15 patients. Conclusion. Le LES est souvent diagnostiqué tardivement à l'hôpital d'Efoulan. L'atteinte rénale est fréquente et la réalisation des biopsies rénales n'est pas courante. Une étude de cohorte plus élaborée multicentrique est nécessaire pour mieux cerner les facteurs de risque et de pronostique

Context and objective. In Africa, the prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is certainly under-estimated and studies are limited. The aim of this study was to describe the clinical and biological profile in lupus patients. Methods. A retrospective study was conducted on medical records of SLE patients attending Efoulan Hospital in Cameroon from January 2017 to November 2019. The diagnosis of SLE was based on the SLICC criteria and the SLEDAI score was used to assess disease activity. Results. Records from 19 patients were collected including 17 women. Their average age was 35 ± 15 years. The mean diagnostic delay was 6.5 ± 1.5 years. There was a predominance of joint damage and mucous membranes. Proteinuria was encountered in 16 patients. The SLEDAI was very high in 15 patients. Conclusion: SLE is often diagnosed late at Efoulan Hospital. Renal complications are frequent but kidney biopsies are not common. A larger cohort is needed

Pneumonie à l'infection à Coronavirus (COVID-19) : défis, opportunités et quelles solutions à envisager en Afrique subsaharienne ?

En décembre 2019, la ville de Wuhan en Chine a déclaré des cas de pneumonie virale à SARS-CoV-2, dénommée plus tard par l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé (OMS), COVID19. En quelques mois cette nouvelle entité est devenue une pandémie. Elle concerne à ce jour, 185 pays, atteignant plus de trois millions de personnes et a occasionné plus de 225 000 décès. Cette pandémie a perturbé et déséquilibré tous les systèmes de santé des pays concernés. Ces différents pays ont mis en œuvre des moyens conséquents pour y faire face.Les pays de l'Afrique sub-saharienne (ASS) en général et la République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) en particulier, doivent saisir cette opportunité pour s'organiser, former le personnel soignant, équiper les hôpitaux et améliorer l'accès aux soins des populations susceptibles de contracter cette maladie. La COVID-19 pouvant entraîner des complications graves chez certains patients, les unités des soins intensifs devraient être équipées pour apporter de l'oxygénothérapie de façon optimale, de l'assistance respiratoire par des moyens non invasifs ou invasifs et la suppléance d'autres organes afin d'améliorer le pronostic de ces patients graves. Voilà autant des défis à relever pour sécuriser la prise en charge des patients en ASS et en RDC

Impact économique de la pandémie à COVID-19 dans les pays à ressources limitées : le cas des pays de l'Afrique subsaharienne

La propagation de la COVID-19 dans les pays à ressources faibles de l'Afrique subsaharienne ainsi que les mesures prises pour y faire face influent considérablement sur leurs économies. On observe un ralentissement d'activités dans tous les secteurs économiques occasionnant des pertes de rentabilité au niveau d'entreprises, de revenus pour les ménages, de recettes fiscales au niveau des Etats et d'emploi pour les travailleurs. Il en résulte une baisse drastique de la production et un risque de récession pour l'ensemble de la région. Il faut donc des mesures de ripostes multisectorielles et une politique macroéconomique permettant de renouer avec la croissance de la production

Gestion sécurisée des dépouilles de personnes décédées de la COVID-19 en Afrique sub-Saharienne: et si on laissait les familles enterrer leurs morts?

La pandémie à Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) touche les pays d´Afrique sub-Saharienne depuis le mois de mars 2020. Au-delà des désastres sanitaire et économique causés, se pose un problème psycho-socio-culturel en rapport avec la gestion des corps de personnes décédées de cette maladie; ce problème est susceptible d´entraver la bonne marche de la stratégie de riposte. Au Cameroun par exemple, la gestion actuelle de ces dépouilles ne fait pas l´unanimité. En effet, les restrictions appliquées à l´inhumation, bien que récemment assouplies proscrivent entre autres tout transfert interurbain des dépouilles. A la lumière des considérations culturelles africaines de la personne décédée, des dissensions créées entre les familles et le corps médical, de la législation et des données scientifiques disponibles, cet article analyse les risques et les bénéfices de l´inhumation des dépouilles par les familles. Il propose ensuite des solutions qui concilient la dignité (en laissant les familles enterrer leurs morts dans les domiciles), et la sécurité (en assurant une conservation hermétique et la surveillance d´un officier de police judiciaire). L´application de ces solutions pourraient améliorer la confiance de la population envers le système de santé et contribuer positivement aux stratégies de prévention, d´identification et de prise en charge des cas de COVID-19

COVID-19: Cardiovascular care in sub-Saharan Africa during the COVID-19 crisis: lessons from the global experience

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Ostéomyélite chronique des membres dans un service d'orthopédie générale en milieu tropical

Objectifs : Décrire les aspects épidémiologiques et le traitement des ostéomyélites chroniques de membres. Patients et Méthodes : Une étude rétrospective des dossiers de patients traités pour une ostéomyélite chronique de membre a été réalisée. Les patients ont été opérés entre janvier 2013 et décembre 2016 Les renseignements recueillis étaient épidémiologiques, cliniques, radiologiques, biologiques, thérapeutiques, et évolutifs. Résultats : Cinquante quatre patients étaient traités. Il y avait 42 (78%) hommes et 12 (22%) femmes. L'âge moyen était de 13,91±10,09 ans (2-46). Les patients ayant un âge inférieur à16 ans représentaient 74%(n=40) de la population. Trente-sept (68%) des patients provenaient des zones rurales. Le motif de consultation était la fistule chez 40 (74%) patients. La lésion était unifocale (n=50;93%). Le délai moyen de consultation était de 25,96 ±16,60 mois. La majorité des lésions siégeaient au tibia (n=30 ; 52%), au fémur (n=14 ; 24%), et à l'humérus (n=10;17%). Les lésions étaient localisées à la diaphysaire et métaphysaire dans 41 (74%) cas. Le séquestre était noté chez tous les patients. La culture était positive chez 39 patients. Le Staphylococcus aureus était le germe isolé dans (n=20;51,2%). Le traitement consistait en une séquestrectomie couplée à une antibiothérapie. Au recul moyen de16,11±5,65 mois, le taux de guérison était de 87%. Conclusion : L'ostéomyélite chronique de membres en milieu tropical atteint les adolescents. Les os longs concernés par ordre de fréquence étaient le tibia, le fémur, et l'humérus. La diaphyse et la métaphyse étaient les localisations de prédilection. Les séquestres étaient les lésions anatomiques prédominantes Le Staphylococcus aureus était le germe le plus isolé. La séquestrectomie associée à l'antibiothérapie était le traitement standard. Le taux de guérison était de 87%

Embrochage de Kapandji sans amplificateur de brillance des fractures du radius distal

Introduction : Les méthodes thérapeutiques des fractures du radius distal sont variées. Les buts de cette étude étaient de décrire la technique de l'embrochage selon Kapandji sans amplificateur de brillance et d'évaluer les résultats obtenus. Patients et Méthodes : Les patients ont été opérés entre mars 2009 et décembre 2012 pour une fracture du radius distal extra- articulaire à bascule postérieure. L'âge moyen était de 38 (18-75) ans. Il s'agissait de fractures fermées ou ouvertes de type I de Gustilo-Anderson. L'embrochage de Kapandji a été réalisé en ambulatoire sans garrot au bras. L'anesthésie était locale (n=52 ; 76%) et générale (n=16 ; 24%). La fracture était réduite par la technique de Judet et ou de « démonte pneu ». La qualité de la réduction était appréciée par la correction de la bascule postérieure et la restitution de la ligne bi- styloïdienne. Soixante-huit patients ont été retenus au contrôle final. Les évaluations fonctionnelle et radiologique ont été faites selon les critères de Castaing. Le recul moyen était de 15,6 mois. Résultats : Les fractures ont consolidé en 44 jours (42-49). Le résultat radiologique en post opératoire était très bons (n=22; 32%), bons (n=28 ;41%), moyens (n=14 ;21%) et mauvais (n=4 ;6%). Au dernier recul, les résultats fonctionnels étaient très bons (n=40 ;59%), bons (n=22 ;32%), moyens (n=6 ;9%), et mauvais (n=0). Les résultats radiologiques étaient très bons (n=20 ;29%), bons (n=30 ;44%), moyens (n=12 ;18%) et mauvais (n=6 ;9%). Les complications étaient une infection superficielle (n=14), le déplacement secondaire (n=22), la migration des broches (n=18), une lésion de la branche sensitive du nerf radial (n=6). Les facteurs de bon pronostic étaient l'âge< 60ans, la lésion métaphysaire M1M2, l'articulation radio-ulnaire intacte, la physiothérapie, et l'absence de syndrome complexe douloureux régional. Conclusion : L'embrochage de Kapandji des fractures extra-articulaires à déplacement postérieure sans l'utilisationde l'amplificateur de brillance donne de bons résultats. Cette méthode peut être appliquée dans les centres dont le plateau technique est limité

Correlation between colposcopic impression and histologic diagnosis of premalignant lesions of the cervix

Background: Cervical cancer is the commonest cancer in sub-Saharan African with majority of the women presenting with an advanced disease stage. This is largely due to the unavailability of an established cervical cancer screening programme in most countries. This also includes the use of colposcopy which is still not available to many gynaecologists practicing in Nigeria. Aim: To review reports of colposcopy carried out at the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Abuja, Nigeria and to determine the degree of concurrence between colposcopic impression and histologic diagnosis. Methods: A retrospective analysis of the colposcopic findings of 84 patients was done. Subsequent correlation with histopathology report was carried out in 53 patients who had colposcopically directed biopsies between March 2012 and February 2014. Results: The commonest impression made on colposcopy was high grade CIN in 40(47.6%) patients. The concurrence rate between colposcopic findings and histology diagnosis was 64.2% (34/53) {K =0.302, 95%CI= -0.010-0.436}. The concurrence rate was higher for high grade CIN 29/40(72.5%) than for low grade CIN 5/12 (41.7 %). There was an overestimation of colposcopic diagnosis in 13(24.5%) patients and an underestimation in 6(11.3%) patients. The sensitivity of colposcopy for detecting high grade lesions or more was 32/36(88.9%) while the specificity was 8/17(47.1%). False positive rate for high grade lesions was 9/17(52.9%) and false negative rates for low grade lesions was 4/36(11.1%). Positive predictive value (PPV) of high grade colposcopic diagnosis or more was 32/41(78.04%) while the negative predictive value (NPV) was 8/12(66.73%). Conclusion: The strength of agreement between colposcopic diagnosis and cervical pathology was fair and colposcopy performs better in the detection of high grade lesions

National age-of-consent laws and adolescent HIV testing in subSaharan Africa: a propensity-score matched study

Objective To estimate the association between legal age of consent and coverage of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing among adolescents in countries with high HIV-burden. Methods We analysed data from adolescents aged 15­18 years, who participated in Demographic and Health Surveys or AIDS Indicator Surveys between 2011 and 2016, in 15 sub-Saharan African countries. To improve balance in the distribution of measured individual- and country-level haracteristics, we used propensity score matching between adolescents in countries with more versus less restrictive ageof-consent laws (≤15 years versus ≥16 years). We estimated the percentage of individuals who self-reported that they have done an HIV test in the past 12 months and compared the differences in such testing rates among adolescents exposed to lower versus higher age-ofconsent laws. We also investigated effect modifications by sex and age. Findings Legal age of consent below 16 years was associated with an 11.0 percentage points higher coverage of HIV testing (95% confidence interval, CI: 7.2 to 14.8), corresponding to a rate ratio of 1.74 (95% CI: 1.35 to 2.13). HIV testing rate had a stronger association with lower age of consent among females than males. The testing rates differences were 14.0 percentage points (95% CI: 8.6 to 19.4) for females and 6.9 percentage points (95% CI: 1.6 to 12.2) for males (P-value for homogeneity=0.07). Conclusion This study provides evidence to support the recent World Health Organization's recommendations that countries should examine current laws and address age-related barriers to uptake of sexual and reproductive health services

Review of molecular subtyping methodologies used to investigate outbreaks due to multidrug-resistant enteric bacterial pathogens in sub-Saharan Africa

Background: In sub-Saharan Africa, molecular epidemiological investigation of outbreaks caused by antimicrobial-resistant enteric bacterial pathogens have mostly been described for Salmonella species, Vibrio cholerae, Shigella species and Escherichia coli. For these organisms, I reviewed all publications describing the use of molecular subtyping methodologies to investigate outbreaks caused by multidrug-resistant (MDR) enteric bacterial infections.Objectives: To describe the use of molecular subtyping methodologies to investigate outbreaks caused by MDR enteric bacterial pathogens in sub-Saharan Africa and to describe the current status of molecular subtyping capabilities in the region. Methods: A PubMed database literature search (English language only) was performed using the search strings: 'Africa outbreak MDR', 'Africa outbreak multi', 'Africa outbreak multidrug', 'Africa outbreak multi drug', 'Africa outbreak resistance', 'Africa outbreak resistant', 'Africa outbreak drug', 'Africa outbreak antibiotic', 'Africa outbreak antimicrobial'. These search strings were used in combination with genus and species names of the organisms listed above. All results were included in the review. Results: The year 1991 saw one of the first reports describing the use of molecular subtyping methodologies in sub-Saharan Africa; this included the use of plasmid profiling to characterise Salmonella Enteritidis. To date, several methodologies have been used; pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis and multilocus sequence typing have been the most commonly used methodologies. Investigations have particularly highlighted the emergence and spread of MDR clones; these include Salmonella Typhi H58 and Salmonella Typhimurium ST313 clones. In recent times, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis approaches have increasingly been used. Conclusion: Traditional molecular subtyping methodologies are still commonly used and still have their place in investigations; however, WGS approaches have increasingly been used and are slowly gaining a stronghold. African laboratories need to start adapting their molecular surveillance methodologies to include WGS, as it is foreseen that WGS analysis will eventually replace all traditional methodologies